Microfluidic model of the blood brain barrier

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to culturing brain endothelial cells, and optionally astrocytes and neurons in a fluidic device under conditions whereby the cells mimic the structure and function of the blood brain barrier. Culture of such cells in a microfluidic device, whether alone or in combination with other cells, drives maturation and/or differentiation further than existing systems.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to culturing brain cells and particularlyastrocytes together with endothelial cells in a fluidic device underconditions whereby the cells mimic the structure and function of theblood brain barrier and/or spinal cord. Good viability and functionallow for measurements of barrier integrity and physiology, whether bytrans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER), patch clamp or othertesting measures.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The blood-brain barrier is of major clinical relevance. Not only becausedysfunction of the blood-brain barrier leads to degeneration of theneurovascular unit, but also because drugs that are supposed to treatneurological disorders often fail to permeate the blood-brain barrier.Because of its importance in disease and medical treatment, it would behighly advantageous to have a predictive model of the human blood-brainbarrier that recapitulates aspects of the cerebral endothelialmicroenvironment in a controlled way.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to culturing endothelial cells (preferablybrain-related endothelial cells), optionally astrocytes, optionallyneurons and optionally pericytes in a microfluidic device, such asmicrofluidic chip (described herein) under conditions whereby the cellsmimic one or more structural or functional features (e.g. tightjunctions) of the blood brain barrier (BBB) and/or spinal cord. Goodviability and function allow for measurements of barrier integrity andphysiology, whether by transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER),electrophysiology (including, for example, patch clamp) or other testingmeasures. Indeed, neuronal cells, such as motor neurons, that areallowed to mature on a microfluidic chip, show a more matureelectrophysiology (action potential patterns, for example) indicating amore advanced or accelerated maturation. Thus, in one embodiment, thepresent invention contemplates a microfluidic culture of iPSC-derivedneural progenitor cells or (alternatively) neurons (e.g. a culture in amicrofluidic setting, such as in a microchannel and/or microfluidicdevice) in contact with flowing media. In one embodiment, theiPSC-derived neural progenitors or (alternatively) neurons are culturedalone (without other cell types). In one embodiment, said neurons areiPSC-derived neurons. In one embodiment, said iPSC-derived neurons aremotor neurons. In one embodiment, said neurons are cultured in amicrochannel or on a membrane of a microfluidic chip. In one embodiment,said microfluidic chip comprises two microchannels separated by a porousmembrane having first and second surfaces, wherein said neurons arecultured on said first or second surface. In one embodiment, saidculturing is performed for 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or more days. In oneembodiment, said neurons exhibit a more mature electrophysiology ascompared to the same neurons cultured in a static culture. Culture ofcells in the microfluidic chip, whether alone or in combination withother cells, drives maturation and/or differentiation further thanexisting systems.

It is not intended that the present invention be limited to only onetype of test or measurement to assess the more mature phenotype ofneurons and BMECs. In one embodiment, gene expression, Ca2+ fluximaging, immunofluorescent staining, and/or tissue morphology isassessed as evidence of more mature neurons, BMECs and/or astrocytes.

Where neurons, such as motor neurons (or their precursors), areco-cultured (i.e. cultured together) on a microfluidic chip withrelevant vascular cells, such as brain microvascular endothelial cells,an even greater effect on differentiation, maturation and/orconditioning is observed. Thus, in one embodiment, the present inventioncontemplates a microfluidic co-culture of iPSC-derived neuralprogenitors or (alternatively) neurons with vascular cells, e.g. amicrofluidic co-culture of neurons with iPSC-derived vasculature (e.g.said vascular cells are iPSC-derived vascular cells). In one embodiment,said iPSC-derived vascular cells are brain microvascular endothelialcells. In one embodiment, said neurons are iPSC-derived neurons. In oneembodiment, said iPSC-derived neurons are motor neurons. In oneembodiment, said vascular cells are co-cultured with said neurons in amicrochannel or on a membrane of a microfluidic chip. In one embodiment,said microfluidic chip comprises two microchannels separated by a porousmembrane having first and second surfaces, wherein said neurons arecultured on said first surface and said vascular cells are cultured onsaid second surface. In one embodiment, said culturing (e.g. under flowconditions) is performed for 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or more days. In oneembodiment, at least a portion of said neurons and vascular cells are incontact with each other (whether by direct physical contact or indirectcell-to-cell communication). In one embodiment, said neurons andvascular cells are in contact with flowing culture media (e.g. the cellsare adhered to a surface and the media flows over the cells at acontrolled rate, bringing nutrients and removing waste). In oneembodiment, said neurons exhibit a more mature electrophysiology ascompared to the same neurons cultured in a static culture.

The microfluidic chip culture increases and accelerates function ofiPSC-derived neurons, including motor neurons (MNs). Co-culture withiBMECs recreates known vascular-interaction pathways and furtherincreased maturation in vitro. The fact that cells differentiate andmature more fully on a microfluidic chip indicates that the chip is abetter culture tool than more conventional culture systems (e.g.transwell cultures and other static systems), providing a better modelof what is going on in vivo (including what is going on in diseasestates). Thus, in one embodiment, the present invention contemplates amicrofluidic device or chip comprising a co-culture of neurons, and morespecifically, motor neurons, and more typically, induced motor neurons,with brain microvascular endothelial cells, and more typically, inducedbrain microvascular endothelial cells. In one embodiment, the presentinvention contemplates a method of making a co-culture on microfluidicdevice or chip comprising introducing neurons, and more specifically,motor neurons, and more typically, induced motor neurons, and brainmicrovascular endothelial cells, and more typically, induced brainmicrovascular endothelial cells into microfluidic device or chip, andflowing media over said cells. In one embodiment, said culturing (e.g.under flow conditions) is performed for 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or moredays. In one embodiment, the microfluidic chip comprises twomicrochannels separated (at least in part) by a porous membrane (orother porous member) having first and second surfaces, wherein motorneurons, and more typically, induced motor neurons, are cultured on thefirst side (e.g. top surface) of the porous membrane (or other porousmember) and brain microvascular endothelial cells, and more typically,induced brain microvascular endothelial cells, are cultured on thesecond surface (e.g. bottom surface) of the porous membrane (or otherporous member). Vascular blood flow can be recreated by flowing media inthe microchannels.

While not intending to limit the invention to any particular mechanism,it is believed that neuronal progenitor cells and neurons grown incontact with (including in direct contact with) iPSC-derived brainmicrovascular endothelial cells (BMECs) will mature more fully on amicrofluidic chip. There may be a variety of components in themicroenvironment that contribute to this result, including but notlimited to, autocrine and paracrine signaling, ECM (protein) cues, masstransfer (due to flow), and mechanical forces (including fluid shear).Importantly, the data shows that the improved differentiation,maturation and/or conditioning can be achieved without the addition ofexogenous factors.

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates contact of neuronsand brain related vascular cells, and more preferably, direct contact ofiMNs and iBMECs on the microfluidic chip to enhance neuronal physiologyas measured by electrophysiology and transcriptomics. It has been foundthat the chip accelerates diMN electrophysiological maturation.Moreover, a highly complex spontaneous activity of the neurons isobserved in the chip. Indeed, neural tissue has more matureelectrophysiological properties in the chip and in co-culture withBMECs. In some embodiments, more developed currents are observed in theneurons on the chip. In a preferred embodiment, the iMNs and iBMECs aregenerated from the same person, e.g. the stem cells of the same person.In one embodiment, the iMNs and iBMECs generated from the same patientline, e.g. the same patient stem cells. In one embodiment, the patienthas symptoms of a CNS disorder, and more specifically, aneurodegenerative disease. In one embodiment, the neurodegenerativedisease is ALS. In one embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease isParkinson's disease. In one embodiment, the CNS disorder is Alzheimer'sdisease.

Relevant markers can be detected by fluorescence staining andimmunochemistry. In a specific embodiment, cell morphology and movementon (or through) the “BBB-on-chip” is monitored in real-time.Furthermore, in one embodiment, the in vitro model presented by a“BBB-on-chip” can be used to inform drug development or the study ofexisting agents, by permitting the testing of drug candidates to see ifthey cross the BBB, harm it, or make it less permissive, potentiallyunder specific coincident conditions or for specific individuals orpopulations. The BBB-on-chip may also be used for pre-screening andoptimization of new treatments potentially as an alternative to animalwork, serving as an in vitro proof of principle for clinical studies.Furthermore, the BBB-on-chip model may be used to study disease,including but not limited the role of genetics, environment,cell-to-cell communication, and the role of barrier integrity (or lackthereof) in CNS disease progression. In one embodiment, the presentinvention contemplates a BBB-on-chip where at least one population ofcells is derived from a patient diagnosed with a disorder of the nervoussystem. In addition, the BBB-on-chip model may be used diagnostically inorder to determine, for example, the presence of a medical condition(e.g. a genetic or acquired disease, syndrome or predisposition) or topredict the response of an individual to a potential treatment (e.g.tailoring the dose of medication on the basis of that patient'sblood-brain barrier permeability to that medication).

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a method ofculturing cells, comprising: a) providing a fluidic device comprising amembrane, said membrane comprising a top surface and a bottom surface;b) seeding cells on said bottom surface; and c) culturing said seededcells under conditions that support the maturation of brainmicrovascular endothelial cells. In one embodiment, said cells areselected from the group consisting of stem cell-derived cells, cellsdifferentiated from stem cells and primary cells. In one embodiment,said cells differentiated from stem cells are brain microvascularendothelial cells. In one embodiment, said cells differentiated fromstem cells are iBMECs. In one embodiment, the method further comprisesseeding said cells on said top surface and culturing said top surfaceseeded cells under conditions that support the maturation of at leastone of astrocytes and neurons. In one embodiment, said neurons exhibit amore mature electrophysiology as compared to the same neurons culturedin a static culture. For example, a mature electrophysiology includesnegative sodium channel current, positive potassium channel current,and/or action potential spikes of amplitude, duration and frequencysimilar to neurons in a physiological environment or when compared tostatic culture neurons, static culture neurons lack one or more of theaforementioned features. In one embodiment, said culturing of said topsurface seeded cells further comprises culturing said seeded cells underconditions such that an astrocyte or portion thereof transmigrates saidmembrane and contacts one or more brain microvascular endothelial cellson said bottom surface. In one embodiment, said cells differentiatedfrom stem cells seeded on said top surface are derived or extracted fromEZ spheres, induced neural progenitor cells (iNPCs) or iMNPs. In oneembodiment, said stem cells are human induced pluripotent stem cells. Inone embodiment, said stem cells are human induced pluripotent stemcells. In one embodiment, prior to step b) at least one of said top orbottom surface are coated with one or more extracellular matrixproteins. In one embodiment, said top surface is coated with laminin. Inone embodiment, said bottom surface is coated with a mixture of collagenand fibronectin, and lacks laminin. In one embodiment, said cells seededon said top surface further comprise pericytes. In one embodiment, saidconditions of step c) comprise exposing said seeded cells to a flow ofculture media for a period of time (e.g. 4, 7, 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 ormore days). In one embodiment, said flow promotes differentiation ofsaid induced motor neuron progenitor (iMNP) cells. In one embodiment,said flow promotes the formation of tight cell-to-cell junctions amongsaid brain microvascular endothelial cells. In one embodiment, themethod further comprises detecting said tight cell-to-cell junctions. Inone embodiment, said tight cell-to-cell junctions are detected by TEERmeasurements. In one embodiment, the method further comprises step e)measuring of neuron or astrocyte activity by at least one ofintracellular electrophysiology measurements (e.g. patch clampmeasurements across the cell membrane), extracellular electrophysiologymeasurements (e.g field potentials generated by a plurality of cells),imaging using calcium-sensitive dyes or proteins, or imaging usingvoltage-sensitive dyes or proteins. In one embodiment, said tightcell-to-cell junctions are detected by cell permeability assays. In oneembodiment, said brain microvascular endothelial cells express themarker Glut 1. In one embodiment, said culturing of step c) is performedfor at least four days. In one embodiment, said culturing of step c) isperformed for at least seven days. In one embodiment, said culturing ofstep c) is performed for 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or more days. In oneembodiment, said fluidic device further comprises at least one inletport and at least one outlet port, and said culture media enters saidinlet port and exits said outlet port. In one embodiment, said membranecomprises a nanopatterned surface which promotes extended and directedneurite growth. The preferred nanopattern is linear valleys and ridges,but alternatives such as circular, curved, or any other desired shape orcombination thereof are also contemplated.

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a method ofculturing cells, comprising: a) providing a microfluidic devicecomprising a membrane, said membrane comprising a top surface and abottom surface; b) coating said top surface of said membrane withlaminin and said bottom surface with a mixture of collagen andfibronectin, said mixture free of laminin; c) seeding stem-cell derivedbrain cells on said top surface and brain microvascular endothelialcells on said bottom surface so as to create seeded cells; d) exposingsaid seeded cells to a flow of culture media for a period of time (e.g.4, 7, 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or more days); and e) culturing said seededcells under conditions such that said brain microvascular endothelialcells on said bottom surface form tight junctions. In one embodiment,said brain microvascular endothelial cells are free of neurons. In oneembodiment, said microfluidic device comprises a first fluidic channelin fluidic communication with said top surface of said membrane and asecond fluidic channel in fluidic communication with said bottom surfaceof said membrane, said first and second fluidic channels each comprisinga surface that is parallel to said membrane, and each comprising sidewalls. In one embodiment, said brain microvascular endothelial cellsgrow on the parallel surface and side walls of the second fluidicchannel so as to form a lumen. In one embodiment, said brainmicrovascular endothelial cells express the marker Glut 1. In oneembodiment, said culturing of step e) is performed for at least fourdays. In one embodiment, said culturing of step e) is performed for atleast seven days. In one embodiment, said culturing of step e) isperformed for 10, 12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or more days. In one embodiment,said fluidic device further comprises at least one inlet port and atleast one outlet port, and said culture media enters said inlet port andexits said outlet port. In one embodiment, said first and second fluidicchannels comprise polydimethylsiloxane. In one embodiment, prior to stepb) said first and second channels undergo a treatment to promotewetting. In one embodiment, said treatment to promote wetting isselected from the group consisting of plasma treatment, ion treatment,gas-phase deposition, liquid-phase deposition, adsorption, absorption orchemical reaction with one or more agents. In one embodiment, saidstem-cell derived brain cells are seeded on wet laminin. In oneembodiment, said mixture of collagen and fibronectin is dried prior tostep c). In one embodiment, said fluidic device is stored after step b)and before step c). In one embodiment, said fluidic device is stored ata temperature below 25° C. In one embodiment, said fluidic device isstored in a refrigerator. In one embodiment, said induced motor neuronprogenitor cells were stored frozen and then thawed prior to step c).

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a method ofculturing cells, comprising: a) providing a fluidic device comprising amembrane, said membrane comprising a top surface and a bottom surface;b) coating said top surface of said membrane with laminin and saidbottom surface with a mixture of collagen and fibronectin, said mixturefree of laminin; c) seeding induced motor neuron progenitor cells onsaid top surface and brain microvascular endothelial cells on saidbottom surface so as to create seeded cells; d) exposing said seededcells to a flow of culture media for a period of time (e.g. 4, 7, 10,12, 20, 24, 30, 36 or more days); and e) culturing said seeded cellsunder conditions such that said brain microvascular endothelial cells onsaid bottom surface form tight junctions. In one embodiment, saidinduced motor neuron progenitor cells are derived from inducedpluripotent stem cells from a human patient diagnosed with a CNSdisorder. In one embodiment, said flow promotes the differentiation ofsaid induced motor neuron progenitor cells. In one embodiment, saidinduced motor neuron progenitor cells are derived from inducedpluripotent stem cells from a patient diagnosed with Amyotrophic lateralsclerosis (ALS). In one embodiment, said brain microvascular endothelialcells are derived from induced pluripotent stem cells from a patientdiagnosed with MCT8-specific thyroid hormone cell-membrane transporterdeficiency. In one embodiment, said induced motor neuron progenitorcells were stored frozen and then thawed prior to step c).

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a fluidic devicecomprising a membrane, said membrane comprising a top surface and abottom surface, said top surface comprising at least one stem-cellderived brain cell and said bottom surface comprising brainmicrovascular endothelial cells. In one embodiment, said at least onestem-cell derived brain cell is selected from the group consisting ofinduced motor neuron progenitor cells, EZ Sphere-derived cells andiNPCs. In one embodiment, the device further comprises a first fluidicchannel in fluidic communication with said top surface of said membraneand a second fluidic channel in fluidic communication with said bottomsurface of said membrane, said first and second fluidic channels eachcomprising a surface that is parallel to said membrane, and eachcomprising side walls. In one embodiment, said brain microvascularendothelial cells are present on the parallel surface and side walls ofthe second fluidic channel so as to constitute a lumen.

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a system,comprising a) a fluidic device comprising a membrane, said membranecomprising a top surface and a bottom surface, said top surfacecomprising at least one stem-cell derived brain cell and said bottomsurface comprising brain microvascular endothelial cells, saidmicrofluidic device further comprising a first fluidic channel influidic communication with said top surface of said membrane and asecond fluidic channel in fluidic communication with said bottom surfaceof said membrane, b) a fluid source in fluidic communication with saidfirst and second fluidic channels, whereby said cells are exposed tofluid at a flow rate for a period of time (e.g. 4, 7, 10, 12, 20, 24,30, 36 or more days). In one embodiment, said at least one stem-cellderived brain cell is selected from the group consisting of inducedmotor neuron progenitor cells, EZ Sphere-derive cells and iNPCs.

Traditional in vitro systems used in human stem cell-based modeling ofneurodegenerative diseases such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)possess inherent limitations for biological and pathological relevance.Studies have revealed that stem cell-derived neural tissue is unable tomature fully in vitro. This fetal-like immature phenotype presents achallenge when studying genetic contribution to adult-onset pathogenesisin vitro. Here, we hypothesize that iPSC-derived motor neurons (MNs) canbetter mature through enhanced endogenous media conditioning and theaddition of developmentally relevant, non-neuronal cell types inco-culture. To address this, such motor neurons are matured in amicrofluidic device and the functional effects of micro-media volumesare assessed on the neuronal maturation of induced pluripotent stem cell(iPSC)-derived MNs originating from non-disease control and ALSpatients.

Without being bound to theory, the influence of non-neuronal cell types(e.g. astrocytes, etc.) on neuron maturation can be enhanced byrecirculating one or more of the fluids in the microfluidic device. Forexample, medium flowing through a neuronal compartment can berecirculated by fluidically connecting the output of that channel backinto its input, optionally by flowing through a recirculation pump. Manymethods of recirculation are known in the art, including for example,discrete recirculation wherein output fluids are introduced back into aninput reservoir using a pipetting or liquid-handling operation or aspecialized valving system.

In some embodiments, the effect of non-neuronal cell types on neuronmaturation can be obtained by providing the microfluidic device withfluidics that have been conditioned by culture with one or morenon-neuronal cell types. For example, medium cultured with BMECs and/orastrocytes can be used as input or combined, mixed and/or interleavedwith one or more input fluids of the BBB-chip. The use of conditionedfluids may be used in addition to or instead of the including ofnon-neuronal cell types within the chip.

The data (e.g. maturation data (PCA), electrophysiology data and calciumimaging data showing more activity) show that iPSC-derived motor neurons(MNs) can better mature (e.g. develop to a more mature state) throughenhanced endogenous media conditioning and/or the addition ofdevelopmentally relevant, neuronal or non-neuronal cell types inco-culture. Developmentally relevant cell types include brainmicrovascular endothelial cells and astrocytes that emerge at the timepoint at which current standard culture methods are known to bestagnated. The evidence also supports improved maturation of theastrocytes and BMECs. As described herein, astrocytes were observed tosend out of processes to contact the endothelial cells. As describedherein, improved and sustained barrier function indicates maturation ofthe BMECs.

Without intending that the present invention be bound by theory as tothe mechanism by which the cells cultured in a microfluidic settingexhibit a more mature phenotype, it is believed that it is the improvedmicroenvironment that the Chip provides that is responsible for theeffect. The relevant elements of the Chip microenvironment include (butare not limited to): a) improved communication between cells of the sametype, e.g. because of a lower volume of dilution/distribution within thechip (in one embodiment, enhanced endogenous media conditioning isemployed); b) communication between the different cell type (e.g.neuron/astrocyte communication, astrocyte/endo communication (in oneembodiment, the present invention contemplates developmentally relevant,neuronal or non-neuronal cell types in co-culture); c) mass transportproperties related to the fluidic environment (e.g. flow affectsautocrine signaling, paracrine signaling, washing out waste products,providing nutrients, etc.); d) access to both the apical and basal sidesof the BMECs and, potentially, the biochemical independence/isolation ofthose two sides; e) mechanical forces, especially shear forces in thiscase (e.g. shear force is known to affect endothelial cell phenotype);f) enhanced replenishment of media factors related to differentiation(e.g. as opposed to static culture, where the concentration of thefactors may deplete through culture/incubation); g) improved ECMsignaling, both the ability to coat with multiple ECMs in differentregions (e.g. one ECM for the neuronal compartment and a different onefor the endothelial cells) and the ability of the cells in the system toremodel the ECM and its composition (e.g. the BMECs may be laying downECM that could influence the astrocytes).

Without being bound by theory, it is believed that the Chipmicroenvironment promotes differentiation for largely the same reasonsthat it helps maturation (see above). In the microfluidic setting, it isbelieved that the cells derived from stem cells reach the intended fatemore completely, more accurately and/or faster.

Without being bound by theory, it is believed that the microfluidicsetting promotes improved longevity of the cells and/or improvedmaintenance of at least one function of the BBB, neurons orneurovascular junction. We observe such improved longevity andmaintenance of function, for example, in the survival of the neurons andmaintenance of their firing, and in the maintenance of the BMEC barrierfunction.

While not intending to be limited to any specific mechanism, the dataindicates that culturing the cells under flow (preferably continuousflow) conditions (instead of a static culture) increased the number ofiMNs and BMECs per chip when measured over time, e.g. 10, 12, 20, 24, 30and 36 days or more. In a preferred embodiment, MNs are co-cultured withiPSC-derived BMECs under flow (preferably continuous flow) conditions(e.g. MNs on the top surface of the membrane and BMECs on the bottomsurface). Such cultures became dense, thick tissue indicating a threedimensional structure. At the membrane, both cell types could beobserved interacting. Just below the membrane both cell types interactedand diMNs were observed to infiltrate in large clusters into the bottomchannel. BMECs persisted on the bottom channel and continued to formtight junctions.

DEFINITIONS

Some abbreviations are used herein. For example, “MN” refers to motorneurons. The letter “i” indicates “induced.” Thus, “iMN” indicatesinduced motor neurons, i.e. motor neurons that were induced or generatedfrom other cells, e.g. stem cells. “diMN” indicates direct induced motorneurons. “iMNP” indicates induced motor neuron progenitor cells, whichare not fully differentiated into mature neurons.

In one embodiment, the starting material for generating at least onecellular component for the BBB generated on a microfluidic device (orsimply “BBB-on-chip”) comprises stem cells (e.g. see the protocol inExample 1, below). In particular embodiments, these stem cells mayinclude, for example, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) orembryonic stem cells. In one embodiment, progenitor cells (derived fromstem cells) related to neural or vascular lineages or cells directlyreprogrammed into astrocytes, neurons, pericytes, endothelial cells,neural lineage progenitors or endothelial lineage progenitors areemployed/seeded on the chip. It is important to note that not all celltypes involved in the BBB-on-chip must be generated from stem cells. Forexample, the BBB-on-chip may employ primary brain microvascularendothelial cells (BMECs). Techniques are known in the art to reprogram,expand and characterize human iPS cells from human skin or blood tissuesof healthy subjects and diseased patients. For example, anon-integrating system based on the oriP/EBNA1 (Epstein-Barr nuclearantigen-1) episomal plasmid vector system can be used to avoid potentialdeleterious effects of random insertion of proviral sequences into thegenome. See Okita K, et al., “A more efficient method to generateintegration-free human iPS cells,” Nat Methods. 2011 May;8:409. It ispreferred that the iPSC lines so generated express the pluripotencymarkers (SSEA4, TRA-1-81, OCT3/4, SOX2) along with a normal karyotype.In the present invention, iPS cells are used to generate components ofthe BBB-on-chip, e.g. BMECs, neurons, etc. While in many cases, the iPScells are from normal subjects, it is also contemplated that the iPScells can be derived from patients exhibiting symptoms of disease. Inone embodiment, the BBB-on-chip is populated with cells derived from iPScells from a patient diagnosed with a disorder of the nervous system,including but not limited to iPSC-derived motor neurons from Amyotrophiclateral sclerosis (ALS) patients. See D. Sareen et al., “Targeting RNAfoci in iPSC-derived motor neurons from ALS patients with C9ORF72 repeatexpansion” Sci Transl Med. 2013 Oct 23; 5(208): 208ra149.

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates differentiating“stem-cell derived brain cells” on the chip, i.e. in a microfluidicenvironment. The term “stem-cell derived brain cells” refers to cellsderived from stem cells that fall on a spectrum of differentiation. Forexample, in one embodiment, induced motor neuron progenitor cells(including but not limited to, iPSC-derived forebrain neuralprogenitors) are derived from induced pluripotent stem cells, but theyare not fully differentiated. In one embodiment, induced motor neuronprogenitor cells are differentiated on-chip to generate motor neurons,and ultimately mature motor neurons. Thus, in one embodiment, thepresent invention contemplates a method of culturing cells, comprising:a) providing a microfluidic device (optionally comprising a membrane,said membrane comprising a top surface and a bottom surface); b) seedinginduced motor neuron progenitor cells (optionally on said top surfaceand optionally brain microvascular endothelial cells on said bottomsurface so as to create seeded cells); c) exposing said seeded cells toa flow of culture media for a period of lime (days to weeks to months)under conditions such that said at least a portion of said progenitorcells differentiate into motor neurons (and preferably wherein saidmotor neurons display a mature phenotype based on testing describedherein or staining). In one embodiment, the method (optionally) furthercomprises e) culturing said seeded cells under conditions such that saidbrain microvascular endothelial cells on said bottom surface form tightjunctions.

As another example, in one embodiment, induced brain microvascularendothelial progenitor cells are derived from induced pluripotent stemcells, but they are not fully differentiated. In one embodiment, inducedbrain microvascular endothelial progenitor cells are differentiatedon-chip to generate BMECs, and ultimately mature BMECs. Thus, in oneembodiment, the present invention contemplates a method of culturingcells, comprising: a) providing a microfluidic device (optionallycomprising a membrane, said membrane comprising a top surface and abottom surface); b) seeding induced brain microvascular endothelialprogenitor cells (on said top surface or on said bottom surface so as tocreate seeded cells); c) exposing said seeded cells to a flow of culturemedia for a period of time (days to weeks to months) under conditionssuch that said at least a portion of said progenitor cells differentiateinto brain microvascular endothelial cells (and preferably wherein saidBMECs display a mature phenotype based on testing described herein orstaining).

It is not intended that the present invention be limited by the natureof the “microfluidic device” or “chip.” However, preferred microfluidicdevices and chips are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,647,861, herebyincorporated by reference, and they are microfluidic “organ-on-chip”devices comprising living cells in microchannels, e.g. cells onmembranes in microchannels exposed to culture fluid at a flow rate. Itis important to note that the features enabling the actuation of strainor mechanical forces on the cells within the “organ-on-chip” device areoptional with regards to the “BBB-on-chip” and may be omitted. Flow isimportant and stands in contrast to static 2D culture. Using a flow inthe microchannel(s) allows for the perfusion of cell culture mediumthroughout the cell culture during in vitro studies and as such offer amore in vivo-like physical environment. In simple terms, an inlet portallows injection of cell culture medium, blood, blood component ormixture thereof into a cell-laden microfluidic channel or chamber, thusdelivering nutrients and oxygen to cells. An outlet port then permitsthe exit of remaining liquid as well as harmful metabolic by-products.While continuous flow is preferable due to its application of controlledshear forces, either of the device's fluidic paths could also becultured under “stop flow” conditions, where the flow is engagedintermittently, interspersed by static culture.

Microfluidic devices are conveniently made of polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS), polyurethane, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polymethylmethacrylate, polyimide, styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene (SEBS),polypropylene, or any combinations thereof. The present inventioncontemplates treatment of such substances to promote cell adhesion,selection or differentiation or fluid wetting such as treatmentsselected from the group consisting of plasma treatment, ion treatment,gas-phase deposition, liquid-phase deposition, adsorption, absorption orchemical reaction with one or more agents.

Additionally, the term “microfluidic” as used herein relates tocomponents where moving fluid is constrained in or directed through oneor more channels wherein one or more dimensions are 10 mm or smaller(microscale). Microfluidic channels may be larger than microscale in oneor more directions, though the channel(s) may be on the microscale in atleast one direction. In some instances the geometry of a microfluidicchannel may be configured to control the fluid flow rate through thechannel. Microfluidic channels can be formed of various geometries tofacilitate a wide range of flow rates through the channels. However, itis important to note that while the present disclosure makes frequentreference to “microfluidic” devices, much of what is taught appliessimilarly or equally to larger fluidic devices. Larger devices may beespecially relevant if the “BBB-on-chip” is intended for therapeuticapplication. Examples of applications that may make advantage of largerfluidic devices include the use of the device for the generation ofhighly differentiated cells (e.g. the device can used to drive celldifferentiation and/or maturation, whereupon the cells are extracted fordownstream use, which may include implantation, use in an extracorporealdevice, or research use), or use of the device for implantation orextracorporeal use, for example, as an artificial blood-brain barrier ora dialysis-like technology.

As used herein, the phrases “connected to,” “coupled to,” and “incommunication with” refer to any form of interaction between two or moreentities, including mechanical, electrical, magnetic, electromagnetic,fluidic, and thermal interaction. For example, in one embodiment, firstand second channels in a microfluidic device are in fluidiccommunication with a fluid reservoir. Two components may be coupled toeach other even though they are not in direct contact with each other.For example, two components may be coupled to each other through anintermediate component (e.g. tubing or other conduit).

The surfaces of the microchannels and/or the membrane can be coated withcell adhesive, selective or promotive molecules to support theattachment of cells and promote their organization into tissues. Where amembrane is used, tissues can form on either the upper surface of themembrane, the lower surface of the membrane, any of the surfaces of thechannels or cavities present on either side of the membrane or anycombination thereof In one embodiment, different cells are living on theupper and lower surfaces, thereby creating one or more tissue-tissueinterfaces separated by the membrane. The membrane may be porous,flexible, elastic, or a combination thereof with pores large enough toonly permit exchange of gases and/or small chemicals, or large enough topermit migration and transchannel passage of large proteins, as well aswhole living cells and/or portions thereof (e.g. the endfoot of anastrocyte). Depending on the size-scale of the pores and manufacturingpreferences, the pores may be defined, for example, using lithography,molding, laser-drilling or track-etching, intrinsic to a selectedmaterial (for example, polyacrylamide gel, collagen gel, paper,cellulose) or engineered into the material (e.g. by generating anopen-cell polymer or matrix).

It is not intended that the present invention be limited to particular“flow rates” or means for generating flow rates. In one embodiment, aflow rate of between 5 and 200 uL/hr, and more preferably between 20-100uL/hr, and still more preferably between 10 and 60 uL/hr, and still morepreferably between 20-50 uL/hr, is contemplated. In one embodiment,pressure is applied through the lid (11) and the lid seals against thereservoir(s) (see FIG. 22B). For example, when one applies 1 kPa, thisnominal pressure results, in one embodiment, in a flow rate ofapproximately 30-40 uL/hr. When one applies a pressure of between 0.5kPa, this nominal pressure results, in one embodiment, in a flow rate ofbetween 15 uL/hr and 30 uL/hr.

There are many ways to evaluate the integrity and physiology of an invitro system that mimics the blood brain barrier. Two of the most commonmethods are Transepithelial Electric Resistance (TEER) and LuciferYellow (LY) rejection. Importantly, manipulations must be performedusing aseptic techniques in order for the cells to remain in culturewithout contamination. TEER measures the resistance to pass currentacross one or more cell layers on a membrane. The measurement may beaffected by the pore size and density of the membrane, but it aims toascertain cell and/or tissue properties. The TEER value is considered agood measure of the integrity of the cell monolayer.

Lucifer Yellow (LY) travels across cell monolayers only through passiveparacellular diffusion (through spaces between cells) and has lowpermeability. Therefore it is considerably impeded in passing acrosscell monolayers with tight junctions. Permeability (Papp) for LY of ≤5to 12 nm/s has been reported to be indicative of well-establishedmonolayers.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES

Table 1 shows various conditions (especially related to surfacetreatment and cell seeding) tested for seeding neural cells (EZ spheresand iMNPs) and endothelial cells (iBMECs), which may optionallyoriginate from frozen stocks of cells. Ebert et al., “EZ spheres: Astable and expandable culture system for the generation of pre-rosettemultipotent stem cells from human ESCs and iPSCs” Stem Cell Res. (2013)10 (3): 417-427; Lippmann et al., “Human Blood-Brain Barrier EndothelialCells Derived From Pluripotent Stem Cells” Nat. Biotechnol. (2012)30(8):783-791; and Sareen et al., “Human neural progenitor cellsgenerated from induced pluripotent stem cells can survive, migrate, andintegrate in the rodent spinal cord” J. Comp. Neurol. (2014) 522(12):2707-2728. The best results for iBMECs were achieved with a mixture ofcollagen and fibronectin (4:1 ratio). The best results for iMNPs wereachieved with laminin. A variety of surface treatments and coatingmaterials are known in the art (e.g. from traditional plate-based tissueculture or microfluidic tissue culture), for example, plasma treatment,corona treatment, aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES), collagen(including type I and type IV), fibronectin, laminin, gelatin, Matrigel,and mixtures thereof. The BBB-on-chip can make use of stem cells as theorigin for either one or more of its neural components (which includesat least astrocytes or related cells), one or more of its endothelialcomponents, or both. In particular embodiments, these stem cells mayinclude induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) or embryonic stemcells. In one embodiment, progenitor cells related to neural or vascularlineages or cells directly reprogrammed into astrocytes, endothelialcells, neural lineage progenitors or endothelial lineage progenitors arecontemplated for seeding on the chip. The cells may be differentiatedinto respective cells type before they are deposited in the BBB-on-chip,differentiated within the BBB-on-chip, or partially differentiatedbefore deposition in the BBB-on-chip with further differentiated withinthe BBB-on-chip. The BBB-on-chip may promote the differentiation and/ormaturation of any of the involved cell types. This may be accomplished,for example, by the microenvironment generated by or present within theBBB-on-chip (e.g. cell-cell signaling, protein coating, fluid flow), bythe use of differentiation protocols designed for fluidic culture (e.g.facilitated by flow in microfluidic channels), or combination thereof.Selecting the surface coating is important in order to promote initialcell attachment and viability. Moreover, surface coating may be helpfuland sometime necessary in order to select for specific cell populations(e.g. when seeding a mixed population as is commonplace in stem-cellderived cells) and/or to provide differentiation or maturation signalsto the cells. The effects or success of surface coatings can varydepending on the underlying substrate. Accordingly, the resultsillustrated in Table 1 correspond to a PDMS substrate.

Table 2 shows various conditions tested for seeding neural (EZ spheres,iNPCs and iMNPs) and endothelial cells (iBMECs) on the apical and basalsides of a microfluidic chip. This chip comprised a porous membraneseparating a top fluidic channels and bottom fluidic channel (the chipwas modeled after an embodiment disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,647,861without the optional vacuum operating channels). In typical embodimentsof the present disclosure that comprise a porous membrane, any braincells (e.g. astrocytes, neurons) are disposed within the said topfluidic channel, and endothelial cells (e.g. iBMECs, primary BMECs,HUVECs) are disposed within the said bottom fluidic channel. In otherembodiments, however, endothelial cells are disposed within the topfluidic channel and brains cells are disposed within the bottom fluidicchannel, while in yet other embodiments, both endothelial and braincells are disposed within the same fluidic channel (top, bottom orboth).

Tables 3 and 4 show various conditions tested for seeding fresh neuralcells (iMNPs) and fresh endothelial cells (iBMECs), where the particularconditions are associated by microfluidic chip number, allowing for acorrelation of good tight junctions with the seeding conditions. Chipscan be seeded with a variety of seeding density, with the optimaldensity determined by factors including (but not limited) to cell type,stage of differentiation, surface coating, substrate material, mediacomposition, whether the cells proliferate after seeding, seedingincubation time, channel dimensions, etc. Seeding densities for neuralcells including EZ spheres, iNPCs, and iMNPs in the device illustratedin Table 2 can range, for example, between 1×10³ cells/mL and 1×10⁸cells/mL or between 1×10⁴ cells/mL and 5×10⁸ cells/mL. Seeding densitiesfor endothelial cells including iBMECs in the device illustrated inTable 2 can range, for example, between 2.5×10³ cells/mL and 1×10⁸cells/mL or between 2×10⁴ cells/mL and 5×10⁸ cells/mL.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a schematic of one embodiment of a workflow for preparingand seeding a microfluidic chip comprising six steps. This embodimentaddresses the different surface coating needs/preferences apparent foriBMECs and iMNPs based on experiments such as those illustrated inTables 1 and 2. In particular, the workflow aims to provide, in oneembodiment, different surface coatings for the top fluidic channel andbottom fluidic channel of the device.

FIG. 2 shows two schematics of microfluidic devices. In one embodimentof a microfluidic device or chip (top), the device comprises top(apical) and bottom (basal) channels (the two Xs indicating thatchannels are blocked during at least part of the protocol). The otherschematic (bottom) shows how the ports of a microfluidic device or chip(16) can be utilized to deposit fluids carrying surface coatings (e.g.dissolved proteins) and/or seed the cells using pipette tips. This imageshows a modification to the typical chip ECM coating protocol based onthe need in some embodiments to coat the top and bottom channels withdifferent ECM solutions in wet and dry conditions. The proceduredeveloped involved an “air dam” by which perfusion of ECM1 loaded intothe bottom channel was prevented from perfusing through the membrane tothe top channel by clamping flexible tubing and trapping air in the topchannel. The ports of a second microfluidic channel can be air-filledand plugged up using clips, for example.

FIG. 3 provides a microscopic analysis of Chip 166 from Table 2, showingneural cells in the top channel of the microfluidic device (FIG. 3A) andBMECs on the bottom channel of the microfluidic device (FIG. 3B)

FIG. 4 provides three images from a microfluidic chip where the cellshave been tested for markers to confirm their identity. The top rightimage (FIG. 4B) shows good staining of BMEC tight junctions indicatingBBB formation on chip. On the top left (FIG. 4A), the staining showsneurons and astrocytes. FIG. 4C is a vertical 2D projection of a 3Dconfocal stack of images slices, which allows for visualization of theneurons and endothelial cells together, even though they are not in thesame plane on the microfluidic device.

FIG. 5 provides an image from a microfluidic chip wherein at least aportion of an apical astrocyte (i.e. the endfoot) has transmigrated themembrane and contacted the BMECs on the other side. Contact orinterfacing between astrocytes and endothelial cells is a recognizedfeature of in vivo blood-brain barriers. To our knowledge, thisinterface has never been previously observed in in vitro models of theblood-brain barrier. The potential for the formation ofastrocyte-endothelial contact observed in some of the embodimentsdisclosed herein is desired and advantageous, as it is believed that thein vivo contact/junction is related to the tight barrier propertiescharacteristic of the blood-brain barrier.

FIG. 6 shows a first image (FIG. 6A) where iMNs were seeded on a plain(unpatterned) surface, as well as a second image (FIG. 6B) where thesame cells were seeded on a nanopatterned surface, resulting in directedneurite growth. Such nanopatterning can be applied to the membrane orany surface of the BBB-on-chip. In particular embodiments, thenanopatterning is applied to the top surface of the membrane to directneurite growth for neuron seeded on said surface. It is desired in someuses to direct neurite growth, for example, in studying neuron biologyor disease (e.g. conditions that disturb neurite growth or itsdirectionality), as a readout of neuron or blood-brain-barrier health(e.g. by monitoring neurite growth or its directionality) or infacilitating electrophysiological measurements (e.g. using amulti-electrode array or patch clamping). The preferred nanopattern islinear valleys and ridges, but alternatives such as circular, curved, orany other desired shape or combination thereof are also contemplated.Linear nanopatterning can include, for example, line spacing rangingfrom 10 nm to 1 um, 0.5 um to 10 um or 5 um to 50 um, and line depthranging from 10 nm to 100 nm, 50 nm to 1000 nm, 200 nm to 5 um or 2 umto 50 um.

FIG. 7 show microscopic examination of the morphology of fresh (notfrozen) BMECs seeded on a 4:1 mixture of collagen and fibronectin thathas either been dried (FIG. 7A, top left) or remained wet (FIG. 7B, topright), as well as an example where the same fresh cells were seeded onlaminin (FIGS. 7C and D, the arrow indicating contamination of the cellswith neurons).

FIG. 8 is a schematic showing one embodiment of a standard syringe pumpand reservoir setup for perfusion of the chips mediated by flexibletubing for introducing flow into the microfluidic chips. A plurality offluid reservoirs are in fluidic communication with a correspondingplurality of microfluidic chips via inlet ports, with tubing coming fromthe exit ports and attached to a plurality of syringes used to drawfluid through the chip at a flow rate. While a convenient method forcreating flow conditions, other methods involving different pumpingapproaches or pressure approaches to drive fluid are contemplated.

FIG. 9 comprises photographs of microscopic examination of cellmorphology on the bottom (left-hand side) and top (right-hand side) ofthe membrane in a microfluidic device where the cells have been exposedto flow (using the system of FIG. 8) for a number of days (7 days). FIG.9A and C show the results for Chip 664 where BMECs (oncollagen/fibronectin) and iMPs (on wet laminin) were co-cultured. FIGS.9B and D show the results for Chip 663 where iMPs (on laminin) werecultured alone.

FIG. 10 is a photograph of fluorescent staining of cells in amicrofluidic device where the cells have been exposed to flow (using thesystem of FIG. 8) for a number of days. The image is a 3D image of theBMEC in the bottom channel showing a complete contiguous BMEC lumenbeing formed in the chip.

FIG. 11 is a photograph of fluorescent staining of cells showing thepresence of neural stem cells (red) in addition to neural filaments(green), with the nuclei stained with DAPI. In the preferred embodiment,the BBB-on-chip includes endothelial or endothelial-like cells(preferably brain-related endothelial cells) and optionally astrocytesor astrocyte-like cells. However, in some embodiments, the BBB-on-chipcontains additional cells type such as, for example, neurons, pericytesand various progenitor cells. Such cells may be included as an intendedor unintended bi-product of the stem cell differentiation process fromwhich the astrocytes or endothelial cells are generated (whether on chipor preceding it), as stem cells and progenitor cells are typicallycapable of differentiating into a plurality of cells types. The presenceof neurons is desirable in some embodiments because they can be used asreadouts of BBB function (e.g. agents penetrating the barrier may affectthe neurons in measurable ways) or because they may interact with othercells types or help generate a local environment that improves thefunction of the BBB-on-chip. Similarly, pericytes are desirable in someembodiments, because it is believed in the art that they help establishthe blood-brain barrier and can be potentially monitored to evaluate BBBhealth. Neuronal- or endothelial-lineage progenitors are desirable insome embodiments, as they may replenish cell populations and bepotentially monitored to evaluate BBB health. Accordingly, in someembodiments, neurons, pericytes, neuronal-lineage progenitors,endothelial-lineage progenitors or combinations thereof or progenitorsthereof may be deposited in the BBB-on-chip. In other embodiments, adifferentiation process is employed (whether on chip or preceding it) togenerate one or more of these cells types.

FIGS. 12A and 12B show graphs with functional measurements performed onBBB-on-chips. FIG. 12A shows the results/readout from transepithelialelectrical resistance (TEER) measurements on the microfluidic chip underflow, static, and control conditions. Clearly, flow is important foroptimum results. FIG. 12B show TEER measurements on transwells. TEER isa typical measure of in vitro BBB models and is used both for evaluatingthe model as well as an experimental readout (e.g. after subjecting theBBB model to an experimental condition). Some aspects of the presentinvention include measuring the TEER of one or more BBB-on-chips. Thiscan be done, for example, to evaluate BBB-on-chip development,maturation or quality, as a readout for experiments involve anintroduced agent, as a readout for experiments involving specific cellsor cell types (e.g. patient specific, a disease population, or treatedto simulate a disease or condition), etc. It is known in the art how tointegrate electrodes suitable for TEER measurement into microfluidicdevices. Douville et al., “Fabrication of Two-Layered Channel Systemwith Embedded Electrodes to Measure Resistance Across Epithelial andEndothelial Barriers” Anal Chem. 2010 March 15; 82(6): 2505-2511.

FIGS. 13A and B show how TEER measurements were made in one embodiment.FIG. 13A is an enlarged schematic view showing how electrodes on thechip were connected, along with pipette tips engaging the chip; FIG. 13Bshows the same connected chip to the right of a Epithelial Voltohmmeter.

FIG. 14A was a follow-up experiment on another round of prototype TEERchips that showed iBMEC barrier function increasing in the presence offlow on a chip followed by a weakening of barrier function with theexposure of the chips to TNFa, a proinflammatory cytokine. Higher TEERvalues generally indicate a tighter barrier, which is typicallydesirable for a blood-brain barrier. FIG. 14B also involves TNF alphaexposure, but the readout is membrane permeability as measured byDextran-FITC.

FIG. 15 shows permeability results for (and the structure of)fluorescein sodium. Some aspects of the present invention includeascertaining permeability for various additional agents (e.g. drugs,chemicals, hormones, blood components, biomarkers). Such methods canallow qualitative or quantitative estimation of the permeability of thein vitro blood-brain barrier to the one or more agents. Furthermore,according to some aspects of the present invention, the permeability ofone agent is measured in response to a second agent, treatment orexperimental condition (for example, measuring the effect of amedication on the blood-brain barrier permeability of anothermedication).

FIG. 16A shows the user interface and the conditions during the run ofhuman blood across the blood brain barrier. FIG. 16B shows the equipmentsetup for measuring the transport of solutes from human blood across theblood brain barrier (BBB), a barrier created in vitro in themicrofluidic devices described herein using a layer of BMECs. Asevidenced, some embodiments include blood or blood components,optionally perfused through one or more fluidic channels within thedevice. The use of blood of blood components is desired in someembodiments, as the blood or blood components can improve BBB-on-chipfunction, for example, by providing biochemical cues, or conversely hurtthe BBB-on-chip, for example, because the blood may contain a harmfulagent that may be under investigation. In some aspects, permeabilityassays include blood or blood components in order to provide apotentially more in vivo like result. In other aspects,individual-specific blood or blood components are used in order topotentially provide individualized BBB-related measures. This caninclude, for example, the measurement of the permeability of one or moreagents or components from the blood or components, the effect of theblood or components on the permeability of one or more agents that maybe added to the blood or another fluid included in the device, theeffect of the blood or components on the health of the BBB-on-chip orany of its components (whether positive or negative), etc. This mayinclude diagnostic uses, for example, to identify a disease, biomarkeror infectious agent carried by the blood or blood components.

FIG. 17 shows the measurement of thyroid hormone transport by massspectrometry (FIG. 17A) using the setup shown in FIG. 16, along with thegraphed results (FIG. 17B). After flowing patient blood through themicrofluidic chips into the channel under the BMECs, it was possible tomeasure the transport of compounds from the blood into the neuralcompartment, i.e. through the BMEC barrier. In this case, the experimentincluded a control set of BBB-on-chips comprising iPS-derived cellsoriginating from a non-diseased individual, and a second set ofBBB-on-chips comprising iPS-derived cells originating from a patientdiagnosed with Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome (AHDS). Themass-spectrometry data in FIG. 17A is an initial experiment to confirmthat the MCT8 transporter defect can be recapitulated on an Organ-Chip.

FIG. 18 shows electrophysiology recordings collected by patch-clamp fromneurons in the microfluidic device (“BBB-on-Chip”). An arrow (FIG. 18A)indicates single action potential. Current recordings (FIG. 18B, right)show negative sodium channel currents (Na⁺) and positive potassiumchannel (K⁺). These measurements on-chip can be used, for example, toprovide an indication of neuronal maturation or as a readout of neuronhealth. In turn, neuronal maturation or health can be used as indicatorsof BBB-on-chip quality (for example, before starting an experiment) oras an experimental endpoint indicating, for example, that an agent ascrossed the BBB, a disease condition has emerged, the BBB has beenmodified or compromised, or conversely, that the BBB or neural functionor health have improved. Patch clamping can be performed on theBBB-on-chip by a variety of methods, including for example, by insertingthe patch-clamp electrodes through the soft body of an elastomericBBB-on-chip device. Similarly to patch-clamping, otherelectrophysiological readouts can be obtained, for example by includingone or more electrodes in the device. In particular, a multi-electrodearray (MEA) can be integrated on the membrane of embodiments thatpossess one or similarly in fluidic channels or cavities within thedevice. Electrophysiological measurements (patch-clamping, MEA) can alsobe applied to astrocytes, which have been shown in the art to beexcitable.

FIG. 19 show the results of calcium flux imaging in the neural channel.The photograph (FIG. 19A, top left) is a single fluorescent image from amovie of such images. The colored circles indicate the positions thatcorrespond to the time traces in the 3 graphs. The traces (FIGS. 19B andC) show that it is possible to observe neuronal function in themicrofluidic chips in real-time. The addition of tetrodotoxin (TTX),which is a potent blocker of voltage-gated calcium channels, ablatesthis activity (FIG. 19D, bottom right). Calcium imaging or imaging usingvoltage-sensitive dyes or proteins offer similar advantages toelectrophysiological readouts but offers the advantage that noelectrodes are necessary. Accordingly, some aspects of the presentinvention include methods of measuring the BBB-on-chip by imaging in thepresence of calcium or voltage-sensitive dyes or proteins, to allow thepotential recording and optional manipulation of neuronal or astrocyteexcitations. These measurements can be used, for example, to provide anindication of neuronal maturation or as a readout of neuron health. Inturn, neuronal maturation or health can be used as indicators ofBBB-on-chip quality (for example, before starting an experiment) or asan experimental endpoint indicating, for example, that an agent ascrossed the BBB, a disease condition has emerged, the BBB has beenmodified or compromised, or conversely, that the BBB or neural functionor health have improved.

FIG. 20 shows both a protocol for generating, and staining resultsconfirming the generation of, neural cells from neural progenitors. Suchtechniques allow one to make multipotent neural stem cells and motorneuron precursor directly from iPSC, allowing differentiation into manyneural cell types (neurons, astrocytes, etc.).

FIG. 21 shows the corrected T3 concentration in the top channel of sevendifferent chips, i.e. chips populated with normal cells (2280, 2289 and2284) as compared to chips populated with cells from an MCT8 cell lineor patient (2285-2288).

FIG. 22A is a schematic showing one embodiment of the microfluidicdevice or chip (16), comprising two microchannels (1), each with aninlet and outlet port (2), as well as (optional) vacuum ports. FIG. 22Bis a topside schematic of an embodiment of the perfusion, disposable or“pod” (10) featuring the transparent (or translucent) cover (11) overthe reservoirs, with the chip (16) inserted in the carrier (17). Thechip can be seeded with cells and then placed in a carrier for insertioninto the perfusion disposable or pod, whereupon culture media in thereservoirs flows into the microchannels and perfuses the cells (e.g.both BMECs and MNs).

FIG. 23 shows a schematic of an illustrative microfluidic device or“organ-on-chip” (16) device. The assembled device is schematically shownin FIG. 23A with the top surface (21) indicated. FIG. 23B shows anexploded view of the device of FIG. 23A, showing a bottom piece (97)having channels (98) in a parallel configuration, and a top piece (99)with a plurality of ports (2), with a tissue-tissue interface simulationregion comprising a membrane (101) between the top (99) and bottom (97)pieces, where (in one embodiment) cell behavior and/or passage of gases,chemicals, molecules, particulates and cells are monitored. In anembodiment, an inlet fluid port and an outlet fluid port are incommunication with the first central microchannel such that fluid candynamically travel from the inlet fluid port to the outlet fluid portvia the first central microchannel, independently of the second centralmicrochannel. It is also contemplated that the fluid passing between theinlet and outlet fluid ports may be shared between the centralmicrochannels. In either embodiment, characteristics of the fluid flow,such as flow rate and the like, passing through the first centralmicrochannel is controllable independently of fluid flow characteristicsthrough the second central microchannel and vice versa.

FIG. 24 is a print out of electrophysiological data from neuronscultured in a microfluidic device or chip, showing highly complexspontaneous activity in a chip.

FIG. 25 shows print outs of electrophysiological data from neuronscultured alone (FIG. 25A, top panel) and co-cultured with BMECs (FIG.25B, bottom panel) in a microfluidic device or chip, showing that neuraltissue have more mature electrophysiological properties in the chip, andin co-culture with BMECs.

FIG. 26 shows print outs of electrophysiological data from neuronscultured alone (FIG. 26A, top panel) and co-cultured with BMECs (FIG.26B, bottom panel) in a microfluidic device or chip, showing that neuraltissue have more mature electrophysiological properties in the chip whenin co-culture with BMECs.

FIG. 27 provides neural calcium measurement read-outs comparing neurons(MN) co-cultured with BMECs (FIG. 27D, bottom panel), cultured alone(FIG. 27C, first panel up from the bottom panel), cultured inendothelial cell conditioned medium or ECCM in a (96-well) staticculture (FIG. 27B, second panel up from the bottom panel), along with anunconditioned media (96-well) static control (FIG. 27A, top panel). Eachneuron's activity is simultaneously tracked and analyzed (calcium influxis an indirect measure for neuronal activity that can be observed livein the chip). The results show that co-culture increases diMN neuralcalcium transient activity, i.e. a significant increase in transientfrequency is observed upon contact of MNs with iBMECs.

FIG. 28 is a bar graph of neural calcium measurements (average frequencyevents per cell) comparing neurons (MN) co-cultured with BMECs (farright), cultured alone (next bar to the left), cultured in endothelialcell conditioned medium or ECCM in a static culture (next bar to theleft), along with an unconditioned media static control (far left). Theresults show that co-culture increases diMN neural calcium transientactivity, i.e. a significant increase in transient frequency is observedupon contact of MNs with iBMECs.

FIG. 29 shows the results of a transcriptomic study of iMNs in amicrofluidic chip. Neurons were either cultured alone (FIG. 29A, topbox) on the chip or in a co-culture with BMECs (FIG. 29B, bottom box),and this was compared with a 96-well static culture. The MNs were sortedon a FACS and RNA was sequenced (i.e. gene expression was detected).RNA-Seq from FACS sorted MNs show that neural development gene pathways(PC1) are upregulated in chip. Vascular interaction genes (PC3) arerecreated in co-culture with iBMECs. In addition, there are chip inducedgenes (PC2), i.e. gene activity induced in the cells simply from beingcultured on the chip.

FIG. 30 shows the detailed results from which FIG. 34 was prepared,showing the names of various neural development genes (PC1), chipinduced genes (PC2) and vascular interaction genes (PC3). The coloredbars on the right in FIG. 30 represent the expression of each gene (row)in each of the 5 conditions (columns). Column order is MN Only, BMEC/MN,96-well control, 96 well ECCM, MN progenitor. Red=high and blue=low.These vascular gene pathways have not been shown to be induced in anyother culture system and may be inducing the observed increase inmaturity and activity.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to culturing endothelial cells (preferablybrain-related endothelial cells) and optionally astrocytes, optionallyneurons, and optionally pericytes in a fluidic device under conditionswhereby the cells mimic one or more structural or functional features(e.g. tight junctions) of the blood brain barrier and/or the spinalcord. Culture of these cells in a microfluidic device, such as amicrofluidic chip with flow as herein described, whether alone or incombination with other cells, drives maturation and/or differentiationfurther than existing systems. For example, a mature electrophysiologyof the neurons includes negative sodium channel current, positivepotassium channel current, and/or action potential spikes of amplitude,duration and frequency similar to neurons in a physiological environmentor when compared to static culture neurons, static culture neurons lackone or more of the aforementioned features. The evidence also supportsimproved maturation of the astrocytes and BMECs. As described herein,astrocytes were observed to send out of processes to contact theendothelial cells. As described herein, improved and sustained barrierfunction indicates maturation of the BMECs. Good viability and functionallow for measurements of barrier integrity and physiology, whether byTEER, permeability assays, patch clamp (or other electrophysiologicalmethods), calcium or voltage imaging, or other testing measures.Observed characteristics of the in vitro “BBB-on-chip” of the presentinvention include: (1) tight junctions between endothelial cells (whichcreates selective permeability to substances); (2) optional cell-to-cellcommunication exemplified by contact of the endothelial cells withastrocytes (e.g. endfoot contact by partial transmigration of themembrane separating these cells); (3) optional extended neuriteprojections, (4) optional fluid flow that influences celldifferentiation and tight junction formation; and (5) high electricalresistance representing the maturity and integrity of the BBBcomponents. With respect to neurite projections, in one embodiment, thepresent invention contemplates seeding on nanopatterned surfaces whichpromote extended and direct (e.g. along a relatively linear path)neurite growth. The preferred nanopattern is linear valleys and ridges,but alternatives such as circular, curved, or any other desired shape orcombination thereof are also contemplated. With respect to endothelialcells, in one embodiment, the present invention contemplates BMECs whichform a lumen on the chip (for example, completely lining a flow channel,at least for a portion of its length). Among other advantage (e.g.endothelial layer stability) this potentially enables the use of thedevice with blood or blood components. With respect to selectivepermeability, the present invention contemplates, in one embodiment,introducing substances in a channel under the BMECs such that at leastone substance passes through the BMEC barrier (e.g. BMEC cells on thebottom side of the membrane) and into a channel above the membrane, anddetecting said at least one substance (e.g. with antibodies, mass spec,etc.).

Although there is a strong need for a model of the human blood-brainbarrier, it is also desirable to develop models of blood-brain barriersof other organisms (not limited to animals). Of particular interest aremodels of, for example, mouse, rat, dog, and monkey, as those aretypically used in drug development. Accordingly, the BBB-on-chip canmake advantage of not only human-derived cells but also cells from otherorganisms. Moreover, although it is preferable that all cell types usedoriginate from the same species (for example, in order to ensure thatcell-cell communication is effective), it may be desirable at time tomix species (for example, if a desired cell type is scarce or possesstechnical challenges).

DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a BBB-on-chipwhere at least one population of cells is derived from a patientdiagnosed with a disorder of the nervous system. While it is notintended that the present invention be limited to a particular CNSdisorder, in one embodiment, the disorder is ALS. Amyotrophic lateralsclerosis (ALS) is a severe neurodegenerative condition characterized byloss of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. In one embodiment,the present invention contemplates generating induced pluripotent stemcells (iPSCs) from patients with ALS and differentiating them into motorneurons progenitors for seeding on a microfluidic device. There arecurrently no effective treatments for ALS. In one embodiment, thepresent invention contemplates the BBB-on-chip as a model system fortesting drugs so as to predict success in subsequent clinical trials.

In another embodiment, the CNS disorder is Parkinson's disease (PD). PDis a neurodegenerative disorder primarily characterized by a loss ofdopamine neurons, but which also leads to many other pathologicalchanges.

In yet another embodiment, the CNS disorder is Alzheimer's disease.Alzheimer's is a type of dementia that causes problems with memory,thinking and behavior. Symptoms usually develop slowly and get worseover time, becoming severe enough to interfere with daily tasks.

It is contemplated that iPSC technology can be used together withmicrofluidic chips to mimic patient-specific phenotypes in diseasestates. For example, in another embodiment, cells derived from patientsdiagnosed with MCT8-specific thyroid hormone cell-membrane transporterdeficiency are contemplated for use in microfluidic devices as at leastone of the cellular components of the “BBB-on-chip.” This disease ischaracterized by severe cognitive deficiency, infantile hypotonia,diminished muscle mass and generalized muscle weakness, progressivespastic quadriplegia, joint contractures, and dystonic and/or athetoidmovement with characteristic paroxysms or kinesigenic dyskinesias.Seizures occur in about 25% of cases. Patients exhibit pathognomonicthyroid test results including high serum 3,3′,5-triiodothyronine (T₃)concentration and low serum 3,3′,5′-triiodothyronine (reverse T₃ or rT₃)concentration. Serum tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T₄) concentrationis often reduced, but may be within the low normal range; serum TSHconcentrations are normal or slightly elevated. SLC16A2 (also known asMCT8) is the only gene in which mutations are known to cause thisdisorder.

EXPERIMENTAL Example 1

Cells are prepared either directly from cultured iPSCs or from frozenlots of pre-differentiated cells. Cells are thawed (or dissociatedfresh) and seeded into the chip at day 8-9 (in the case of BMECsdifferentiation) and at various points in neural differentiation. In thecase of

MNs, for example, cells are seeded at day 12 of differentiation eitherfrom freshly differentiated cultures or directly from a thawed vial.iPSC-derived forebrain neural progenitor cultures (dubbed EZs) werecultured in chip either dissociated or as neural spheres that attachedand extended in 3 dimensions (See FIG. 3 apical).The various factorsused in the protocol (see above chart and tabs) for the generation ofmotor neurons are provided (using iPSCs as the starting material).

Example 2

In this example, another protocol for the generation of motor neurons isprovided using iPSCs as the starting material:

The various factors used in the protocol (see above chart and tabs) forthe generation of motor neurons are provided (using iPSCs as thestarting material).

Example 3

This example explores various conditions tested for seeding neural (EZspheres and iMNPs) and endothelial cells (iBMECs) from frozen stocks ofcells on surfaces treated with different extracellular matrices (ECMs).The best results for iBMECs were achieved with a mixture of collagen andfibronectin (4:1 ratio) using a seeding concentration of 5×10⁶ cells/ml(Table 1). Given these results, seeding was attempted on microfluidicdevices, i.e. chips. Table 2 shows various conditions tested for seedingneural (EZ spheres, iNPCs and iMNPs) and endothelial cells (iBMECs) onthe apical and basal sides of a microfluidic chip using frozen stocks ofcells.

While a variety of protocols were explored, one embodiment for preparingand seeding a microfluidic chip comprising six steps. FIG. 1 shows theworkflow. First, the chip (or regions thereof) are treated to promotewetting or protein adhesion (e.g. by plasma treatment). One or morechannels are then plugged (see the top schematic of FIG. 2, where an “X”indicates a channel is blocked in a microfluidic device or chip with topand bottom channels). FIG. 2 (bottom schematic) shows how the ports of amicrofluidic device can be utilized to introduce fluid (e.g. with ECMs)or cells using pipette tips. Using the protocol, the ECM mixture for thebottom channel is introduced first, with the excess removed, and theremainder dried. Thereafter (step 3), the ECM for the top channel isintroduced. The BMECs can be seeded on the bottom channel. The topchannel can be washed. Finally, the neural cells can be introduced andincubated for attachment. Cultures were seeded into chips following theseeding of BMECs described above either on the same day or the followingday after BMECs had been seeded onto the chip. The chips were culturedfor 14 days and fixed and stained for relevant markers. Confocal imagingshows the transmigration in z-stack.

FIG. 3 provides a microscopic analysis of Chip 166 from Table 2, showingneural cells in the top channel of the microfluidic device (left) andBMECs on the bottom channel of the microfluidic device (right). Theneural cells and BMECs have attached.

The attached cells were then tested for markers to confirm theiridentity. FIG. 4 is a vertical 2D projection of a 3D confocal stack ofimages slices, which allows for visualization of the neurons andendothelial cells together, even though they are not in the same planeon the microfluidic device. The BMECs display the Glut 1 marker, whilethe neurons are positive for NFH. DAPI was used to stain the nuclei.

FIG. 5 provides an image from a microfluidic chip wherein at least aportion of an apical astrocyte (i.e. the endfoot) has transmigrated themembrane and contacted the BMECs on the other side. The astrocytes areshown in white against the red stained BMECs.

Example 4

The present invention contemplates, in one embodiment, utilizingnanopatterned surfaces for seeding cells. FIG. 6 shows a first image(top) where iMNPs were seeded on a plain (unpatterned) surface, as wellas a second image (bottom) where the same cells were seeded on ananopatterned surface. Clearly, the nanopatterned surface results indirected neurite growth (e.g. in a line pattern)

Example 5

While frozen stocks of cells can be used (particular for the neuralcells), it was found that better results can be obtained (particularlyfor BMECs) when fresh cells are used for seeding. FIG. 7 showmicroscopic examination of the morphology of fresh (not frozen) BMECsseeded on a mixture of collagen and fibronectin that has either beendried (FIG. 7A, top left) or remained wet (FIG. 7B, top right), as wellas an example where the same fresh cells were seeded on laminin (FIGS.7C and D). Interestingly, when laminin was used, the BMECs were not freeof neurons (see the arrow in FIG. 7D indicating contamination of thecells with neurons).

Tables 3 and 4 show various conditions tested for seeding fresh neural(iMNPs) and fresh endothelial cells (iBMECs), where the particularconditions are associated by microfluidic chip number, allowing for acorrelation of good tight junctions with the seeding conditions.Staining results (not shown) for microfluidic chip 574 (see Table 3 forconditions) indicated the cells are positive for Glut 1 (red stain),which is a marker of BMEC tight junctions (the nuclei were also stainedblue from DAPI). The seeding conditions for chip 574 resulted in goodtight junctions. Staining results (not shown) for microfluidic chip 665(see Table 3 for conditions) indicated that the cells are positive forGlut 1. Thus, the seeding conditions for chip 665 also resulted in goodtight junctions. Staining results (not shown) for microfluidic chip 667(see Table 3 for conditions) indicated the cells are positive forGlut 1. Thus, the seeding conditions for chip 667 resulted in good tightjunctions. Staining results for microfluidic chip 693 (see Table 3 forconditions) indicated the cells are positive for Glut 1. Thus, theseeding conditions for chip 693 resulted in good tight junctions.

Staining results (not shown) for microfluidic chip 733 (see Table 4 forconditions) indicated the cells are positive for Glut 1. The results(not shown) also revealed that coating with laminin alone (beforeseeding) results in poor BMEC tight junction formation.

Example 6

Unlike conventional static cultures, the present invention contemplatesmicrofluidic devices where the cells are exposed to a constant flow ofmedia providing nutrients and removing waste. FIG. 8 is a photographshowing one embodiment of a system for introducing flow into themicrofluidic chips. A plurality of fluid reservoirs are in fluidiccommunication with a corresponding plurality of microfluidic chips viainlet ports, with tubing coming from the exit ports and attached to aplurality of syringes used to draw fluid through the chip at a flowrate. FIG. 9 comprises photographs of microscopic examination of cellmorphology on the bottom (left-hand side) and top (right-hand side) ofthe membrane in a microfluidic device where the cells have been exposedto flow (using the system of FIG. 8) for a number of days. FIG. 10 showsfluorescent staining of cells in a microfluidic device where the cellshave been exposed to flow (using the system of FIG. 8) for a number ofdays. The image is a 3D image of the BMEC in the bottom channel showinga complete contiguous BMEC lumen being formed in the chip. FIG. 11 is aphotograph of fluorescent staining of cells showing the presence ofneural stem cells (red) in addition to neurites (green), with the nucleistained with DAPI.

Example 7

Good cell viability and function on the BB-on-chip allow formeasurements of barrier integrity and physiology, whether by TEER, patchclamp or other testing measures.

TEER: FIG. 12A shows the results/readout from transepithelial electricalresistance (TEER) measurements un the microfluidic chip under flow,static, and control conditions. Cells were plated on tall channel PDMSchips equipped with incorporated gold electrodes on each channel (seeFIG. 13A). Post seeding of BMECs, transendothelial electrical resistancewas measured by connecting the electrodes to an EVOM2 voltohmmeter (seeFIG. 13B). FIG. 12A displays preliminary data indicating the beneficialeffect of flow in the BBB-on-chip, i.e. higher TEER in response to flow.In particular, at around the 40 hour time point, the TEER value observedfor a BBB-on-chip under flow was significantly higher than a similarchip under static conditions, i.e. that the iPS brain microvascularendothelial cells (iBMECs) formed tighter cell-cell junctions or barrierfunction under flow conditions on a prototype TEER-Chip as compared to achip maintained in static culture. The “damaged” chip was a failure dueto the TEER-Chips being a prototype. FIG. 12B shows TEER results wherethe cells were cultured in transwells.

FIG. 14A was a follow-up experiment on another round of prototype TEERchips that showed iBMEC barrier function increasing in the presence offlow on a chip followed by a weakening of barrier function with theexposure of the chips to TNFa, a proinflammatory cytokine. Higher TEERvalues generally indicate a tighter barrier, which is typicallydesirable for a blood-brain barrier.

PATCH CLAMP: FIG. 18 shows electrophysiology recordings collected bypatch-clamp from neurons in the microfluidic device (“BBB-on-Chip”).These measurements on-chip can be used to provide an indication ofneuronal maturation, i.e. more precisely describe the maturity of aneuronal cell. Cells were cultured as described above in a speciallydesigned “openable” chip (where the chips can be partially disassembledto expose directly cells on the semi-porous membrane) with a stiff PETmembrane to aid in patch-clamp recording. PDMS was attempted, but wasunsuccessful. PET membrane chips were opened at endpoint at 6 and 24days in chip. Individual neurons seeded into the chip were directlyaccessed with a glass micropipette, and cell electrophysiology wasrecorded including capacitance, membrane resting voltage, spontaneousactivity and induced activity. FIG. 18 is a whole cell patch recordingof an induced action potential from a neuron cultured on the chip. Anarrow (FIG. 18A) indicates single action potential. Current recordings(FIG. 18B, right) show negative sodium channel currents (Na⁺) andpositive potassium channel (K⁺) are necessary for normal neuron functionand become more pronounced as a neuron matures.

CALCIUM FLUX: FIG. 19 show the results of calcium flux imaging in theneural channel. Using a florescent calcium influx-activated dye(Fluo-4), neurons seeded in chip were imaged using high resolution highframe-rate camera. Florescence intensity changes of up to hundreds ofneurons were analyzed simultaneously by recording average pixelintensity over time (dF/F). These values were plotted with respect totime and are analyzed for waveform properties, which correlatespontaneous neural activity and neural network formation. This isaccomplished through multi-step video post-processing and signalanalysis (including video compression, signal cleanup, automatic ormanual ROI detection, etc. which can be implemented from open-sourceMATLAB software packages). The photograph (FIG. 19A, top left) is asingle fluorescent image from a movie of such images. The coloredcircles indicate the positions that correspond to the time traces in the3 graphs. The traces show that it is possible to observe neuronalfunction in the microfluidic chips in real-time. In this case, it isshown that Ca2+ fluxes can be measured on chips to give a direct readoutof neuronal activity. The addition of tetrodotoxin (TTX), which is apotent blocker of voltage-gated calcium channels, ablates this activity(FIG. 19D, bottom right). This type of experiment will be important whenthe neuronal activity is modulated by pharmacological stimulation.

ICC overlay data: By overlaying images taken after staining the cells,specific cell identification can be combined with original activitytraces to determine specific activities of individual cell types in thechip. The overlay data (not shown) indicates that motor neurons areindeed more active in the chip. This can also be accomplished with celltype specific reporter lines.

Example 8

Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) constitute the blood-brainbarrier (BBB) which forms a dynamic interface between the blood and thecentral nervous system (CNS) in vivo. This highly specialized interfacerestricts paracellular diffusion of fluids and solutes includingchemicals, toxins and drugs from entering the brain. In this example,fluorescein sodium is used in a paracellular permeability assay of theBMECs seeded on a microfluidic device.

Albumin or Dextran conjugated to a fluorescent probe (e.g., FITC orTRITC) are frequently used to monitor changes in leakage, and thusbarrier function. In this case, Dextran-FITC, a green fluorescentmolecule of 4 KDa, or sodium fluorescein (a 0.3 KDa molecule), was addedto the bottom (“blood side”) channel. Paracellular permeability wascalculated by measuring the permeability of the fluorescent molecule onthe Top (“brain side”) channel. Low permeability is an indication forproper barrier functions. FIG. 14B involves TNF-alpha exposure, but thereadout is membrane permeability as measured by Dextran-FITC. FIG. 14Bconfirms that TNFa exposure results in a decrease in barrier functionand TEER by an increase in permeability through the semi-porous membraneby dextran-FITC, a fluorescently labeled small molecule.

FIG. 15 shows the results for (and structure of) fluorescein sodium froma paracellular permeability assay. Chips were seeded with iPSC-derivedBMECs taken from healthy controls (CTR) or MCT8-deficient patients, andthe paracellular permeability was determined by monitoring Blood tobrain permeability of the sodium fluorescein tracer as described above.Flow is clearly important.

In the present experiment, the agent used was fluorescein. In someaspects of the present invention, it is contemplated that similartesting will be done to ascertain permeability for various additionalagents (e.g. drugs, chemicals, hormones, blood components, biomarkers).Such methods can allow qualitative or quantitative estimation of thepermeability of the in vivo blood-brain barrier to the one or moreagents. Furthermore, according to some aspects of the present invention,the permeability of one agent is measured in response to a second agent,treatment or experimental condition (for example, measuring the effectof a medication on the blood-brain barrier permeability of anothermedication). It is important to note that although we refer topermeability, we do not mean to exclude active transport, pumping or anyother means for an agent to pass from one side of the barrier to theother (regardless of direction). The penetration of an agent through thebarrier can be measured, for example, using mass spectroscopy,antibody-based methods (e.g. ELISAs, Western blots, bead-based assays),or optical methods (e.g. fluorescence signature, Raman spectroscopy,absorbance).

Example 9

Some embodiments include blood or blood components, optionally perfusedthrough one or more fluidic channels within the device. The use of bloodof blood components is desired as the blood or blood components canimprove BBB-on-chip function, for example, by providing biochemicalcues, or conversely hurt the BBB-on-chip, for example, because the bloodmay contain a harmful agent that may be under investigation. In someaspects, permeability assays include blood or blood components in orderto provide a potentially more in vivo like result. In other aspects,individual-specific blood or blood components are used in order topotentially provide individualized BBB-related measures. This caninclude, for example, the measurement of the permeability of one or moreagents or components from the blood or components, the effect of theblood or components on the permeability of one or more agents that maybe added to the blood or another fluid included in the device, theeffect of the blood or components on the health of the BBB-on-chip orany of its components (whether positive or negative), etc. This mayinclude diagnostic uses, for example, to identify a disease, biomarkeror infectious agent carried by the blood or blood components.

In this example, hormone transport across the BMECs was measured in the“BBB-on-chip” in healthy and diseased tissue by mass spectrometry.Thyroid hormone was added to the bottom channel and measured on the topchannel. Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) were detected using Liquidchromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

BMECs from a MCT8 background were used. FIG. 16A shows the userinterface and the conditions during the run of human blood across theblood brain barrier. FIG. 16B shows the setup for measuring thetransport of solutes from human blood across the blood brain barrier, abarrier created in vitro in the microfluidic devices describes hereinusing a layer of BMECs. FIG. 16B shows how human blood was perfused intothe bottom channel of the tall chip. In this experiment thyroid hormoneswere measured by LC-MS/MS as described above. This setup will also beused to test the filtration of proteins across the BBB.

FIG. 17 shows the measurement of thyroid hormone transport by massspectrometry (FIG. 17A) using the setup shown in FIG. 16B, along withthe graphed results (FIG. 17B). After flowing patient blood through themicrofluidic chips into the channel under the BMECs, it was possible tomeasure the transport of compounds from the blood into the neuralcompartment, i.e. through the BMEC barrier. In this case, the experimentincluded a control set of BBB-on-chips comprising iPS-derived cellsoriginating from a non-diseased individual, and a second set ofBBB-on-chips comprising iPS-derived cells originating from a patientdiagnosed with Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome (AHDS). Briefly, iBMECswere generated from a patient with an inactivating genetic mutation inthe MCT8 thyroid hormone transporter. This mutation leads to a defect inT3/T4 transport across the BBB and defects in neural development inpatients. The mass-spectrometry data in FIG. 17A is an initialexperiment to confirm that the MCT8 transporter defect can berecapitulated on an Organ-Chip.

Example 10

In this example, the disease model was further evaluated. Samples wereprepared by taking 100 ul of each sample of T3 and mixing it with theequivalent sample of T4. This was done for each sample and also for thecalibration curve. Proteins and salts were precipitated from thesolution; the samples were dried and resuspended in the same volume. Thecalibration curve permitted the calculation of the concentrations (inmM) for both T3 and T4.

For the T3/T4 experiments, the following 4 conditions were tested in themicrofluidic chip:

1. 1 nM T3 in normal media in the bottom channel and media without T3 ontop channel. Both sides were running at a 30 ul/hr flow rate.

2. 100 nM T3 and T4 in normal media in the bottom channel and mediawithout T3 on top channel. Again, both sides were running at a 30 ul/hrflow rate.

3. Human plasma on bottom channel at 90 ul/hr and media without T3 ontop channel kept static for 1 hour.

4. Human plasma on bottom channel at 90 ul/hr and media without T3 ontop channel kept static for 1 hour.

For each experiment, Dextran-FITC was used in the bottom channel tocorrect for paracellular diffusion.

From the above-mentioned 4 conditions, only 100 nM was significantlyabove detection and these worked well as shown in FIG. 21. Chips 2280,2289, and 2284 are populated with cells from a single control line.Chips 2285 and 2286 are populated with cells from the isogenic mutatedMCT8 line. Chips 2287 and 2288 are populated with cells from a mutatedMCT8 patient. FIG. 21 is a bar graph showing the corrected T3concentration in the top channel of each chip. Clearly, there is reducedT3 transport in mutated MCT8 lines as compared to normal, demonstratingone aspect of disease modeling using the blood-brain barrier,organ-on-chip device.

Example 11

In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates contact of neuronsand brain related vascular cells, and more preferably, direct contact ofiMNs and iBMECs on the microfluidic chip to enhance neuronal physiologyas measured by electrophysiology and transcriptomics. It has been foundthat the chip accelerates diMN electrophysiological maturation.

In this experiment, diMNs seeded into the chip were recorded after 12days after seeding. FIG. 24 provides a whole cell patch clamp recordingof a non-invoked spontaneously active neuron showing highly complex andrepetitive bursts of neuronal activity indicative of neuronal networksbeing established in the chip.

When induced to fire by injecting current into the neuron at day 6 inchip, more resolved action potentials are observed (FIG. 25B) comparedto traditional culture (FIG. 25A).

Neurons that are co-cultured with BMECs in chip (MN/BMEC) show morepronounced currents (FIG. 26B) than MNs cultured alone (FIG. 26A) onchip (MN Only) as depicted by current traces recorded as the neuron isinduced to fire an action potential. These observedelectrophyisiological properties are well established in the field asindicating neurons are more mature at this time point.

Example 12

In a controlled study, calcium influx live cell imaging was performed ondiMNs that had been cultured in the chip (MN Chip) and in co-culturewith BMECs (MN/BMEC). Neuron calcium influx was recorded as describedpreviously, and plotted with respect to time (FIG. 27, right panels).Calcium influx events or peaks correspond to neural activity and werecounted by both automated software and blinded human technician. Eachevent was assigned a time-stamped value and depicted for each trackedneuron with respect to time.

FIG. 28 is a bar graph showing that the frequency of recorded neurons onthe chip is significantly increased in both chip conditions compared totraditional 96 well culture control (CTRL 96). This increase was notobserved in 96 well cultures that had been treated with mediapreconditioned with BMECs (ECCM 96) indicating the increase in theneurons ability to flux was achieved exclusively in the chip. Thiseffect was further increased with the addition of BMECs to the chip inco-culture. Increased frequency is known to occur in vivo as MNs matureand indicate neurons mature faster in the chip.

Example 13

In this experiment, diMNs were stably transfected with a nuclear-taggedGFP reporter transgene and seeded on the top channel. NON-GFP BMECs wereseeded into the bottom channel. Chips were allowed to mature either inthis configuration, or non-BMEC controls (both diMN only on chip anddiMN in a standard 96 well plate). The cells were FACS sorted to purifythe diMN cultures away from the NON-GFP BMECs after 6 days on the chip.These purified cells were mRNA sequenced in all conditions, and anon-biased principle component analysis (PCA) was conducted on allsamples. The first principle components separated the conditions bydifferent genes expressed. PCI separates all cultures from a progenitorpool (black) PC2 genes separated 96-well culture from diMNs in chip, andPC3 separated genes that were exclusively expressed in co-culture withBMECs (FIG. 29).

The top 200 highly expressed genes and bottom 100 low expressed genesfrom each PC were entered into the non-biased gene ontology platformDAVID. The resulting pathways included increased neural differentiationin the chip-specific PC2 gene set (FIG. 30, middle list). Vascularinteraction gene pathways were found in the co-culture chips indicatingthat known in vivo gene pathways between the vascular system and neuronswere recapitulated in the chip device. The colored bars on the right inFIG. 30 represent the expression of each gene (row) in, each of the 5conditions (columns). Column order is MN Only, BMEC/MN, 96-well control,96 well ECCM, MN progenitor. Red=high and blue=low. These vascular genepathways have not been shown to be induced in any other culture systemand may be inducing the observed increase in maturity and activity.

TABLE 2 Experimental Conditions Tested Apical Con- Apical Cell DensityApical Basal Cells Basal Basal Chip dition Coating Type ApicalEvaluation Coating Basal Density Evaluation Number  1. Laminin DRY nonePoor COL/Fibro 2x BMEC ?? Poor 150 (50 ug/mL)  2. Laminin EZ03 6.00E +06 Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 2.0E + 06 Poor 151 (50 ug/mL) (HighDensity) 03iCTR  3. Laminin iMNP25i 2.50E + 06 Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC2.0E + 06 Poor 152 (50 ug/mL) (Med Density) 58iCTR  4. Laminin iNPC1.50E + 06 Poor COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 2.0E + 06 Poor 087 (50 ug/mL) 03iCTR 5. Laminin iNPC 1.50E + 06 Need eval. COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 2.0E + 06 Poor083 (50 ug/mL) 03iCTR  6. Laminin iMNp25i 1.25E + 06 Success COL/Fibro1x BMEC 2.0E + 06 Poor 086 (50 ug/mL) (Sphere and endo) 03iCTR  7.Laminin iMNp25i n/a Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 1.0E + 06 Success 166 (50ug/mL) Sphere (Lowest density) 03iCTR  8. Laminin iMNp25i 1.25E + 06Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 1.0E + 06 Poor 164 (50 ug/mL) (Med Density)83iCTR  9. Laminin EZ03 3.00E + 06 Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 1.0E + 06Poor 165 (50 ug/mL) (Med Density) 58iMCT8 10. Laminin iNPC 3.00E + 06Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 2.0E + 06 Poor 116 (50 ug/mL) (Lowest density)58iMCT8 11. Laminin EZ03 1.50E + 06 Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 2.0E + 06Poor 295 (50 ug/mL) (High density) 58iMCT8 12. Laminin iMNp25i 5.00E +06 Success COL/Fibro 1x BMEC 2.0E + 06 Poor 296 (50 ug/mL) (Lowestdensity) 03iCTR 13. Laminin EZ03 1.20E + 07 Success COL/Fibro 0.2x BMEC1.2E + 07 Fair 281 (50 ug/mL) (High density) 03iCTR 14. Laminin iMNp25i6.00E + 06 Success COL/Fibro 0.2x BMEC 6.0E + 06 Poor 291 (50 ug/mL)(High density) 03iCTR

TABLE 3 Conditions Tested Den- Top sity Con- Apical Basal Con- Chip Top(mil/ Top centration Bottom Cell Coating Conc Functionali- Functionali-Flow ditions ID Cells mL) Coating (ug/mL) Cells Density Basal (ug/mL)zation zation Rate Chips 1 573 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 320/60 N/A N/A Col IV/320/80 100W, 100W, None 1 iBMEC Fibro- Fibro- 30s 15 30s 15 nectin (Fb)nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4 (wet) 1:4 (wet) O2 O2 2 574 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/160/40 N/A N/A Col IV/ 160/40 100W, 100W, None 1 iBMEC Fibro- Fibro- 30s15 30s 15 nectin (Fb) nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4 (dry) 1:4 (dry) O2 O2 3663 iMNP 14E6 Laminin 1x 50 N/A N/A Laminin 1x 50 100W, 100W, None 1 30s15 30s 15 sccm sccm O2 O2 4 664 iMNP TBD Laminin 1x 50 iMNP 14E6 Col IV/320/80 100W, 100W, None 1 Fibro- 30s 15 30s 15 nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4(wet) O2 O2 5 665 iMNP TBD Laminin 1x 50 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 160/40 100W,100W, None 1 iBMEC Fibro- 30s 15 30s 15 nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4 (dry)O2 O2 6 667 — — Col IV/ 320/80 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 320/80 100W, Corona;None 1 Fibro- iBMEC Fibro- 30s 15 100W, 30s nectin (Fb) nectin (Fb) sccm15 1:4 (wet) 1:4 (wet) O2 SCCM O2 7 668 — — Col IV/ 160/40 03CTR 14E6Col IV/ 160/40 100W, Corona; None 1 Fibro- iBMEC Fibro- 30s 15 100W, 30snectin (Fb) nectin (Fb) sccm 15 1:4 (dry) 1:4 (dry) O2 sccm O2 8 693Neuron? TBD Laminin 50 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 320/80 100W, Corona; None 1iBMEC Fibro- 30s 15 100W, 30s nectin (Fb) sccm 15 1:4 (wet) O2 sccm O2

TABLE 4 Conditions Tested Top Con- Apical Basal Con- Chip Top DensityTop centration Bottom Cell Coating Conc Functionali- Functionali- Flowditions ID Cells (mil/mL) Coating (ug/mL) Cells Density Basal (ug/mL)zation zaation Rate Chips 1 761 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 320/80 N/A N/A ColIV/ 100W, 100W, None 1 iBMEC Fibro- Fibro- 320/80 30s 15 30s 15 nectin(Fb) nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4 (wet) 1:4 (wet) O2 O2 2 762 03CTR 14E6Col IV/ 160/40 N/A N/A Col IV/ 160/40 100W, 100W, None 1 iBMEC Fibro-Fibro- 30s 15 30s 15 nectin (Fb) nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4 (dry) 1:4(dry) O2 O2 3 763 03CTR 14E6 Laminin 1x 50 N/A N/A Laminin 1x 50 100W,100W, None 1 iBMEC 30s 15 30s 15 sccm sccm O2 O2 4 764 Neuron? TBDLaminin 1x 50 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 320/80 100W, 100W, None 1 iBMEC Fibro-30s 15 30s 15 nectin (Fb) sccm sccm 1:4 (wet) O2 O2 5 765 — — Col IV/320/80 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 320/80 100W, Corona; None 1 Fibro- iBMEC 30s15 100W, nectin (Fb) Fibro- sccm 30s 15 1:4 (wet) nectin (Fb) O2 sccm1:4 (wet) O2 6 766 — — Col IV/ 160/40 03CTR 14E6 Col IV/ 160/40 100W,Corona; None 1 Fibro- iBMEC Fibro- 30s 15 100W, nectin (Fb) nectin (Fb)sccm 30s 15 1:4 (dry) 1:4 (dry) O2 sccm O2

1-42. (canceled)
 43. A method of culturing cells, comprising: a)providing a microfluidic device comprising a membrane, said membranecomprising a top surface and a bottom surface; b) coating said topsurface of said membrane with laminin and said bottom surface with amixture of collagen and fibronectin, said mixture free of laminin; c)seeding induced motor neuron progenitor cells on said top surface andbrain microvascular endothelial cells on said bottom surface so as tocreate seeded cells; d) exposing said seeded cells to a flow of culturemedia for a period of time; and e) culturing said seeded cells underconditions such that said brain microvascular endothelial cells on saidbottom surface form tight junctions.
 44. The method of claim 43, whereinsaid induced motor neuron progenitor cells are derived from inducedpluripotent stem cells from a human patient diagnosed with a CNSdisorder.
 45. The method of claim 43, wherein said flow promotes thedifferentiation of said induced motor neuron progenitor cells.
 46. Themethod of claim 45, wherein said induced motor neuron progenitor cellsdifferentiate into neurons.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein saidneurons exhibit a more mature electrophysiology as compared to the sameneurons cultured in a static culture
 48. The method of claim 43, whereinsaid induced motor neuron progenitor cells are derived from inducedpluripotent stem cells from a patient diagnosed with Amyotrophic lateralsclerosis (ALS).
 49. The method of claim 43, wherein said brainmicrovascular endothelial cells are derived from induced pluripotentstem cells from a patient diagnosed with MCT8-specific thyroid hormonecell-membrane transporter deficiency.
 50. The method of claim 43,wherein said induced motor neuron progenitor cells were stored frozenand then thawed prior to step c). 51-80. (canceled)